Organizational Behavior (OB) Final Paper Research

Hierarchical Behavior (OB) Final - Research Paper Example As Hughes, Ginnett, Curphy (2012) state that even disciples or subordinators have vitality to impact their pioneers. However, the current conditions and conceivable outcomes impact the intensity of pioneers and disciples. According to Fiedlers Contingency Model, every individual has a specific style of power that effectively becomes all-good. A couple of styles focus on making a relationship with their subordinates and other show up embraced centered and oversee task first than a person. One needs to check which style suits the best in the given condition. There is no one best style reliably. It changes with the current circumstances. Here, there is another term LPC (Least Preferred Co-pro) that explains about the delegates who have worked with. You scale them on a bipolar scale against characteristics like agreeable disagreeable, enduring excusing, and debilitating fascinating and so forth. You incorporate the score; if your total is high it infers you are a relationship-organized p ioneer. In case it is low then you are an endeavor centered pioneer. The charming variable exists in the rating. The scale doesn't explain anything about you LPCs yet rather your own specific way of driving. Ordinarily task arranged pioneers acknowledge their LPCS low and conflictingly. In any case, relationship arranged pioneers consider their LPCs ideally. In NAB Duffy had an endeavor centered initiative style who considered his subordinates as low LPCs. Right when Gentilin endeavored to decide the issues, he expected to leave the spot. Duffy fantastically affected his administrator, Gary Dillion. It is pass that Duffy had force and effect as a pioneer. Duffy along with his seniors turned the entire spot accommodating to him. No one set out to intrude in his issues which he conceded in the court. Duffy made an inside and out manufactured framework for the execution of his shrewd practices. He brought his

Landmark Discoveries in Healthcare: An Overview

Milestone Discoveries in Healthcare: An Overview Cynthia Lane Infant restored of HIV: A lady from Mississippi brought forth a kid that reached HIV from its mom. The lady didn't know she had HIV and specialists didn't avoid potential risk to test her for it. Soon after the newborn child was conceived it gave indications of being contaminated with the infection. At the University of Mississippi Medical Center, a Dr. Hannah Gay and her staff chose to take a major risk by giving the newborn child a three enemy of HIV blend tranquilize mixed drink. Amazingly the newborn child has been without hiv for a long time after birth. The baby doesn't give any indications of the disease in its body despite the fact that the kid isn't on any drugs afterward (Subramanian, Oct. 2013). New Changes on Cholesterol Treatments more People on Statins: The American College of Cardiology and the American Heart Association, feels if individuals somehow happened to take statins, cholesterol-bringing down medications this would forestall the primary cardiovascular failure or stroke occasions. The result would profit if the patient doesn't have heart issue history, with factors on sex, sex, age, smoking history, pulse cholesterol levels or is a diabetic (LaRosa, 2001). A Home Pregnancy Test just because that Tells How Pregnant You Are Endorsed by Food and Drug Administration, the Clearblue Advanced Pregnancy Test can let you know in gauge weeks how far you are in your pregnancy (Gallagher, May, 2013; Shoukhrat, 2001-2014). Undeveloped undifferentiated cells: Advance in clinical human cloning A teacher Shoukhrat Mitalipov at the Oregon Health Science University, who cloned Dolly the sheep in 1996. Educator Mitalipov utilized a similar procedure however this time he utilized human skin cells he were burrowed out, he effectively invigorated the egg to electrically and artificially the egg isolated and delivered an undeveloped undifferentiated organisms. The early stage undeveloped cells would be utilized to make body tissues and organs that might be utilized to treat Alzehimer’s, diabetes and coronary illness (Gallagher, May, 2013; Shoukhrat, 2001-2014). One Dose rather than Three Doses of Vaccine May be Plenty to Protect Against HPV The HPV-human papillomavirus antibody is given to young ladies and young men somewhere in the range of 11 and 12 years of age to ensure them against genital moles and cervical malignancy. From the start the kids would must have three shots (vaccinations) of the immunization to be successful; half of the youngsters are not coming back to their doctor or facility to finish the arrangement. A gathering of universal scientists affirmed that one portion of the immunization can produce an expansion of multiple times of antibodies in the body which would be sufficient to shield them from HPV and the danger of malignant growth would be lower (Sifferlin, Nov. 2014). New Hair Growth Research Columbia University, specialists says transplanting hair follicles topsy turvy can create new hair development. Patches of prepuce from circumcised babies are utilized on the grounds that they don't have hair follicles. The prepuce is rearranged and flourishes to deliver hair (CU Researchers, 2013). Crap Pill Dr. Thomas Louie of the University of Calgary, made a gel container that is made of microorganisms found in crap. Our bodies have microorganisms in our gut that help digest our food and battle other malady causing organisms. The gel container is best used to fix Clostridium difficile disease, which is called for short C diff, this is an exceptionally infectious intestinal contamination which causes loose bowels and lethal aggravation of the colon. Under 30 patients were tried with this gel case and have not encountered any repetitive side effects of the C diff contamination (Marchione, Oct. 2013). Changing Poor Quality Eggs to Healthy Eggs Stanford University investigates expounded a method for ladies with low quality eggs to make sound, develop eggs from their own eggs. The analysts would expel a bit of ovarian tissue or an ovary and treat it with proteins and different factors in the lab. The tissue would be revived then re-embedded near the fallopian tubes. Five out of 27 ladies created sound eggs, one brought forth a solid child, and one lady got pregnant (Sifferlin, Sept. 2013). New Genes Linked to Alzeheimer’s There are 24 qualities presently known related with Alzheimer’s, the disclosure includes irritation and the body’s resistant reactions. They are related with the cerebrum changes of Alzheimer’s specialists will target sedates that would possibly treat memory misfortune indications and dementia which is a characteristic of mind issue (Paddock, Oct. 2013). Parkinson’s Disease Detected Early Researchers feel by distinguishing Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s as right on time as conceivable this would recognize their illness and have the option to capture with medications. Board of proteins of spinal liquid can assist researchers with recognizing the main phase of the sickness. By controlling the side effects in their beginning time of the Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s malady, specialists would like to dispatch new investigations to make medicates that bombed out of date (SpiritIndia, 2006). References Gallagher, James; Health and science journalist, BBC News (15 May 2013) http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/wellbeing 22540374 Mitalipov, Shoukhrat (2001-2014 Oregon Health Science University) Oregon National Primate Research Center Oregon Stem Cell Center Departments of Obstetrics Gynecology and Molecular Medical Genetics Oregon Health Science University http://www.ohsu.edu/xd/examine/focuses establishments/immature microorganism place/mitalipov-lab/ LaRosa, MD, John C; From the State University of New York-Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, New York (Circulation. (2001);104:1688-1692doi: 10.1161/à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹hc3901.096665). Counteraction and Treatment of Coronary Heart Disease: Who Benefits? Dissemination is distributed by the American Heart Association http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/104/14/1688 Marchione, Marilynn â€Oct. 3, 2013; PILLS MADE FROM POOP CURE SERIOUS GUT INFECTIONS AP News: http://bigstory.ap.org/article/pills-made-crap fix genuine gut-diseases Laird Harrison (October03,2013) Fecal Transplant Pills Effective for C difficile.Medscape.Oct03,2013. http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/812079 One Dose of HPV Vaccine May Protect Against Cervical Cancer | TIME.comhttp://healthland.time.com/2013/11/04/toning it down would be best one-rather than three-dosages of-hpv-antibody may-ensure against-cervical-malignant growth/#ixzz2r9isNIYr Enclosure PhD, Catherine; Monday 28 October 2013-Scientists find 11 new Alzheimers hazard qualities; http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/267998.php Analysts transplant human hair onto mice utilizing newborn child prepuces PUBLISHED: TUESDAY, OCTOBER 22, 2013, 5:28 AM Refreshed: TUESDAY, OCTOBER 22, 2013, 10:29 AM http://www.nydailynews.com/way of life/wellbeing/analysts transplant-human-hair-mice-article-1.1492475#ixzz2r9kVxUHl Sifferlin, Alexandra(Nov. 04, 2013) http://healthland.time.com/2013/11/04/toning it down would be best one-rather than three-portions of-hpv-antibody may-secure against-cervical-malignant growth/ Sifferlin, Alexandra (Sept. 30, 2013-New Hope for Infertile Women: Healthy Eggs http://healthland.time.com/2013/09/30/new-trust in fruitless ladies solid eggs/ New Procedure to Induce Egg Growth Gives Fresh Hope to Infertile Women | TIME.comhttp://healthland.time.com/2013/09/30/new-trust in fruitless ladies solid eggs/#ixzz2r9o9nOPw Subramanian, Courtney; Oct. 23, 2013; Newborn ‘Functionally Cured’ of HIV Remains in Remission. The disclosure comes year and a half after all treatment stopped Infant ‘Functionally Cured’ of HIV Remains in Remission | TIME.comhttp://healthland.time.com/2013/10/23/infant practically relieved of-hiv-stays abating/#ixzz2r9RG4A7W

Lesson from the Hedgehogs Teamwork

Lesson from the Hedgehogs â€" Teamwork It was the coldest winter ever. Many animals died because of the cold.The hedgehogs, realizing the situation, decided to group together to keep warm. This way they covered and protected themselves; but the quills of each one wounded their closest companions.After awhile, they decided to distance themselves one from the other and they began to die, alone and frozen. So they had to make a choice: either accept the quills of their companions or disappear from the Earth. Wisely, they decided to go back to being together. They learned to live with the little wounds caused by the close relationship with their companions in order to receive the heat that came from the others. This way they were able to survive.Author Unknown Submitted by LauraThe best relationship is not the one that brings together perfect people, but when each individual learns to live with the imperfections of others and can admire the other persons good qualities.Hedgehogs

African Countries And Africa s Modern Day Lingual Issues

Africa is the most fascinating continent on our planet due to the thousands of cultures that are able to thrive there. Africa is the most lingual diverse continent in the world with over three-thousand languages spoken there. The most common languages spoken in Africa are English, French, and Portuguese, however most African countries are composed of tribes, each with their own dialect of language. The issue lies in the fact that most of these languages are not mutually intelligible. Therefore, having thousands of languages has contributed to the downfall and stunted economic growth of many African countries such as Nigeria and Tanzania. Having hundreds of languages in a country composed of tribes can cause multiple issues and can†¦show more content†¦European colonization is the main cause for the numerous amount of languages in the continent of Africa. After the industrial revolution, Europe was searching for money, therefore they colonized in order to enrich thems elves. Ethiopia and Libya were the only countries in Africa to resist the Europeans and prevent their country from being taken over. Otherwise, all the other countries were colonized. The Europeans sharing the same land brought about a whole new set of problems. The Europeans put their own cultural practices into use in Africa which included their languages. The native Africans began to pick up these languages and localizing them. This was the beginning of the linguistic melting pot that we see today in many African countries. As a result of European colonization, we saw many languages emerge out of Africa. As time has progressed, we have failed to see any extinction of these languages of which highly contributes to Africa’s modern day linguistic issues. Nigeria supports over 500 languages inside its borders, however English has been the official language since independence from Britain. Now nearly 60 years later, Nigerians are proposing the idea of changing the official language to an indigenous language for multiple reasons. Nigerians believe that an indigenous language is the key to resolving problems concerning national unityShow MoreRelatedStrategic Management in a Global Context8532 Words   |  35 PagesAirline Industry History: The first ever scheduled airline was launched in St. Petersburg, Florida, a city not generally considered that can boast of an aviation. But on January 1, 1914, the St. Petersburg-Tampa Airboat Line was born there--the world s first scheduled airline using winged aircraft. A plaque on the entrance to St. Petersburg International Airport proclaims: The Birthplace of Scheduled Air Transportation. Since then the industry has faced dramatic growth. Especially in the postRead MoreUnreached People Group Essay5171 Words   |  21 Pagesto all the free exercise of beliefs.† What must be pointed out is that Morocco openly identifies Islam as being the state religion and therefore adopts Shari’ah Law as part of its civil laws that forbid â€Å"proselytizing†. Morocco is a country that is not an â€Å"open country† to various religions aside from Islam, despite what their Constitution and leading politicians claim. Furthermore, Morocco is currently 0.01% evangelized overall. It is in desperate need of evangelism. There are over 13 million peopleRead MoreGlobalization and Its Impact on Malaysia13672 Words   |  55 PagesIf youre totally illiterate and living on one dollar a day, the benefits of globalization never come to you. Jimmy Carter In the US, most progressives start to see the differences between internationalism and economic globalization. David Korten It has been said that arguing against globalization is like arguing against the laws of gravity. Kofi Annan People have accused me of being in favor of globalization. This is equivalent to accusing me of being in favor of the sun rising in the morningRead MoreVerbal and Nonverbal Communication11225 Words   |  45 Pagesthe same thing to all people. Sometimes people attach a different emphasis or meaning to the hand signals that we give out. For example, the A-OK sign, a circle formed by the thumb and the first forefinger, is considered very obscene in some other countries. The Were number one signal is also considered obscene in some cultures. We give emphasis to our words and we attempt to clarify our meaning through the use of gestures. Vocalism or inflection constitutes a ninth form of nonverbal communicationRead MoreCase Study148348 Words   |  594 Pageshelp you achieve a better grade †¢ Key concept audio summaries that you can download or listen to online †¢ Video cases that show real managers talking about their own organisations †¢ Revision flashcards to help you prepare for your exams †¢ A multi-lingual online glossary to help explain key concepts †¢ Guidance on how to analyse a case study †¢ Links to relevant sites on the web so you can explore more about the organisations featured in the case studies †¢ Classic cases – over 30 case studies from previous

Analysis Of Madam Cj Walker s The Souls Of Black Folk

Writing is really important to make our voices heard and it also can be use as a source to express ourselves, especially if we do not have much freedom to do it orally. Readings such as daily newspapers have really large audiences and it also can be use as the ‘vehicle’ to deliver our thoughts and make sure people hear our opinions or things that we want to deliver. Based on a reading with a title â€Å"Broadening Representational Boundaries†, written by Rooks, we can see that the first black women millionaire in America, Madam CJ Walker, also authored numerous articles about her life and her business empire to be issued in various news sources around the country (76-95). Madam CJ Walker is not the only person who wrote her own stories to make her voices heard. There are many other public figures that also writing stories about themselves, such as Booker T. Washington who wrote â€Å"Up from slavery† and Du Bois’s who wrote â€Å"The Souls of Black Folk.† In my opinion, this practice of writing own stories is really beneficial and also a critical dimension of Black life, self-definition, self-determination, and assertion of their place in American society because of many reasons. As we know, by writing own stories, one can inspire, share the lessons that they learnt, share victories and setbacks that they encountered and many more to the readers. We know that blacks faced so many hardships and they were also seen as an inferior race even after the emancipation proclamation. Because of

Developmental studies Free Essays

string(124) " comparative advantage and consequently domestic barriers should not be imposed on the purchase of goods produced overseas\." At the beginning of the twentieth century underdeveloped countries began to look for the ways to diminish their dependency on agricultural exports and to bring on an industrial revolution. The situation which evoked this need was critical. The problem was that the underdeveloped countries developed mainly the policies of supporting primary commodity exports. We will write a custom essay sample on Developmental studies or any similar topic only for you Order Now Transportation policy was used in the infrastructure for delivering the export crop to the harbour. The research institutions specialized in agriculture worked only on improving crops for export, for example, sugar cane, coffee, cotton, etc.  while crops for domestic consumption, for instance, beans or manioc corn, potatoes, left with little or even without expenditure. As a result some of the underdeveloped countries had to follow the policy of import substitution to induce industrialization. Import substitution industrialization will be the goal of study of this paper. This economic policy will be investigated in the frames of an economic term with the necessary characteristics and also in a wider meaning as the experience of the countries of East Asia and Latin America. In the process of research different points of view, both pro and contra, will be cited in order to shed the light on positive and negative aspects and cover the field broadly. In the conclusion of the paper the main findings will be summed up. The term of import substitution can be defined as an economic process and as a policy strategy. As a process import substitution relates to the situation â€Å"where regions (more precisely, existing or new economic activities within regions) take up the production of goods or services which formerly were imported, but, for whatever reasons, now can be viably produced within the region (e.g. as a result of population increases leading to increases in demand or as a result of productivity increases resulting in greater competitiveness. †(Economic Geography Glossary, 1999) Import substitution industrialization (ISI) as the economic strategy means encouraging the development of domestic industry by limiting manufactured goods import. The need of ISI implementation arouses from the belief that there is a potential comparative advantage in some of the industries of developing countries, but these industries are too weak yet to compete with foreign well-established ones. Thus, in order to allow infant industries to establish themselves and to realize their potential, and consequently to be able to compete internationally, governments should support the initial period of their development. The protection of government implies temporary measures such as using tariffs or import quotas to start industrialization in the country. As a policy strategy import substitution can be used to achieve the following goals: 1) to utilize the capacities which are underused; 2) to fight unemployment in the regions; 3) to protect infant industries. The policy of import substitution industrialization, according to the definition provided by the encyclopaedia, is â€Å"a trade and economic policy based on the premise that a developing country should attempt to substitute products which it imports, mostly finished goods, with locally produced substitutes. †(Wikipedia, 2005) The theory of import substitution has much common with the theory of mercantilism. Both the theories promote minimal imports and high exports as the means of inducing the growth of national wealth. In order to implement the policy of import substitution industrialization, the following three main tenets must be pursued: 1) protective barriers to trade, which can be set up in the form of tariffs. Tariffs or custom duties are applied to the goods which are imported and in this way they artificially protect domestic industries from competition with foreign companies; 2) a particular industrial policy, which orchestrates and subsidizes production of the substitutes; 3) a monetary policy, which will keep the domestic currency overvalued. Monetary policy is implemented by setting reserve requirements and changing some interest rates directly or indirectly. The chief tools of monetary policy are operations in open market. In open market money circulates through the selling and buying of deferent foreign currencies credit instruments, or commodities. Such sales or purchases create a certain base currency which leaves or enters market circulation. Usually open market operations are aimed at achieving a specific short term interest rate target. However, monetary policy may also target a certain â€Å"exchange rate relative to some foreign currency or else relative to gold. † (Wikipedia, 2005) Equally important is to note that import substitution as economic protectionalizm can have negative outcomes. Stutz pointed out that â€Å"This form of economic protectionism helped some countries industrialize in the past but involves economic risks. † (Stutz and Souza, 1998) The risks of import substitution meant by Stutz are potential inefficiencies and higher prices. Successful implementation of this policy as a rule needs massive expenditure on infrastructure. Additionally, import substitution is accompanied by the establishment of state firms in the areas of industry which are thought to be too risky or too large for the private sector (or example, steel, aircraft) or estimated to be too important to be owned by foreign firms (or instance, oil). The policy of import substitution industrialization was argued by the advocates of absolute free trade theory. Generally, free trade becomes possible when the flow of services and goods between countries is not taxed. In particular, the economists who supported free trade policy stated that economic strategy would become successful only under the following conditions: 1) international trade in services must be without trade barriers, or tariffs; 2) international trade of goods must not be free from any possible tariffs (namely taxes on imports) or trade barriers (for example, quotas on import); 3) the free movement of international labor; 4) the free movement of international capital; 5) the absence of any economic protectionalizm, implemented by trade-distorting policies (for instance, subsidies, regulations taxes, or laws), which gives an advantage to domestic firms, factors of production, and households over foreign ones. Thus, it becomes obvious that free trade proponents advocated the policy which totally contradicted the fundamental tenets of import substitution industrialization. On the other hand, free trade proponents suggested that a foreign subsidy should be considered as another of comparative advantage and consequently domestic barriers should not be imposed on the purchase of goods produced overseas. You read "Developmental studies" in category "Papers" Free trade economists pointed out that unlimited imports will be beneficial for domestic consumers which overweighs the loss of domestic producers. Thus, the lower prices of foreign subsidies can be considered as net positive. Therefore, the domestic society where any import restriction is applied becomes â€Å"a whole worse off than it would be with unlimited imports. † (Wikipedia, 2005) Anyway, the viewpoints of the both theories – import substitution industrialization and absolute free trade – were checked in the process of their implementation and in real life experience. In the period from 1930 to 1940 the policy of import substitution industrialization was adopted in many underdeveloped countries of Latin America. The driving force which precipitated the acceptance of import substitution idea was the Great Depression which took place in 1930s. According to article Concern with Policy-relevance in the Latin American School of Economics authored by Bianchi, â€Å"Import substitution was a necessary condition for peripheral growth, in association with structural reforms in the economy. The focus should be placed on the strenghtening of the domestic market, which was seen as the crucial element of an inward-looking model of development. † (Bianchi A. M. , 2003) Later on, in the 1950s Raul Prebisch, the prominent Argentine economist, expressed his belief that the only way to succeed for developing countries was to build forward linkages domestically and to create industries which would work on primary products already produced by the countries themselves. The policy of tariffs would help the domestic industry to prosper. By implementing the policy of import substitution industrialization in the period from 1950 to 1970 a number of Latin America countries, in particular Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, attempted to reach positive results and to increase their national wealth. The success of the policy in these countries was based on either high living standards or large populations. However, poorer and smaller countries, for example, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Honduras, were not successful in adopting import substitution policy. Also it is notable that the countries which succeeded in import substitution industrialization managed to change the structure of their governments. Thus neo-colonialism collapsed and was replaced by democratic way of governing. Nationalization turned banks and utilities into public property and returned to nation some of the companies previously owned by foreigners. A case of implementation of import substitution industrialization can be examined with the help of the example of Brazil. Brazil was the country which carried the policy of import substitution industrialization later than other underdeveloped countries. The economists in Brazil carefully analyzed its effects and were planning the industrial development of the country while the other countries started import substitution mainly by accident. It is important to note that Brazil initially had all the chances for success in the policy of import substitution, since its population goes up to 170 million, which makes Brazil the fifth largest country in the world. Also Brazil is the fifth largest country by its land area. And finally, Brazil is rich in forest reserves, minerals, navigable rivers agricultural land, and hydroelectric capability. The development of Brazilian economy in the period from 1950 to the 1970s confirmed the most optimistic views. Brazil with its rich resources and reserves was called â€Å"the land of the future†. In 1950 Brazil attempted to establish the largest industry of motor vehicle having practically no sufficient basis. Thirty years later aircraft of Brazil were working on commuter airlines on the United States. Brazilian shoes spread everywhere. Moreover, Brazil opened up the richest iron mine in the world and Brazilians found out the capital city on the place where previously had been a roadless jungle and built the network of roads going deep into Amazon. When the oil prices rose and began threatening the development of Brazil economy, Brazilians launched huge hydroelectric projects to operate the growing industries of the â€Å"Golden Triangle†, which included Sao Paulo Rio de Janeiro, and Belo Horizonte and required the new automobiles to run on rum instead of gasoline. At the beginning of the 1980s even pessimists agreed that Brazil was â€Å"the country of future†, however added â€Å"and always will be†. The growth of Brazil stopped, when it was almost close to ripening. The modern cities in Brazil coexist together with miserable shanty-towns surrounded with open sewers. The roads are shared by modern vehicles and hand carts. The wages of Brazilian executives are the highest in the world, but at the same time average workers hardly reach subsistence level. Some economists call Brazil â€Å"a Switzerland within an India. † Other economists consider that the case of Brazil brightly illustrates economic growth without economic development. Economist Celso Furtado characterized the state of Brazilian economy in the following way: â€Å"The Brazilian economy constitutes a very interesting example of how far a country can go in the process of industrialization without abandoning its main features of underdevelopment: great disparity in productivity between urban and rural areas, a large majority of the population living at a physiological subsistence level, increasing masses of unemployed people in the urban zones, etc. † (Development policies, Catching Up, Sec 2, Chap 14) By the 1950s the industrial development by means of import substitution had been already a planned process in Brazil. New industries were protected from the foreign competition with the help of a number of methods. Basic industries (for example, steel, electrical power, petroleum reining) became either fully owned by state or received direct subsidies. Law of Similars aimed at putting high tariffs (sometimes tariffs went up to 300%) on imported goods as soon as any domestic firm somewhere in Brazil started manufacturing something ‘similar’. The industries considered high priority always could be credited under favorable terms by a national development bank. For some period of time, the government even set multiple exchange rates in order to lower the cost of imported capital equipment while the price of imported finished goods was kept expensive. One of the growing Brazilian industries in the mid of twentieth century was motor vehicles. The government hoped that foreign financing would help to expand Brazilian firms which were already producing motor parts, bus bodies, truck and so on and soon would turn them into real vehicle manufacturers. But this approach had to be changed for the government of Brazil faced the reluctance of American government to extend loans and the disapproval of the firms from Europe and the USA who owned a critical technology. The world famous giants – Fiat General Motors, Mercedes Volkswagen, and Ford – were threatened to lose their markets in Brazil if they did not manufacture vehicles within the country. It is important to note that modern manufacturing, in particular the production of appliances, motor vehicles, TVs and so on is a complex process that requires substantial knowledge and skill. Final assembly became possible in Brazil since it was the last stage of production and required the least skill. So, launching modern industries Brazil could start with final assembly and gradually came to more complicated â€Å"backwards†, which included more difficult procedures. For example, Volkswagen could start importing complete parts, such as engines, wheels etc. and assemble them in Sao Paulo plant. The tariffs allowed Volkswagen to sell 1960 30% Brazilian Beetle for twice what Europeans would pay even if the quality was not that high. Eventually, most of the parts became produced in Brazil and the quality of assembly improved. Gradually, the competition from Brazilian Fiats, Fords, and Chevrolets pushed the price down. In this way, Brazilian motor vehicle industry became more and more efficient and even in the 1970s Brazil exported subassemblies and parts to America and to the European countries. By 1980 Brazil started exporting entire vehicles. When import substitution industrialization was implemented in Latin America, the drawbacks of the policy soon revealed themselves. In Brazil as well as in other Latin America countries import substitution model led to foreign ownership in all the sectors in industry except those occupied by state enterprise. When the interests of foreign firms were threatened by Brazilian taxes, environmental or labor legislation, American, German, Italian, British Japanese or French owners were quick to call on their state departments. In particular, the Department of the United States defined one of its key objects as establishing favorable â€Å"business climate†. This meant undermining Brazilian government. Thus, in 1964 some Brazilian generals, being encouraged by American officials, made an attempt to overthrow constitutional government of their country. Another drawback of import substitution industrialization revealed in the fact that this policy led to huge foreign debts. It was not accidental, that Brazil and Mexico ran into debts in order to cover the expenses of their infrastructure development. The development of infrastructure needs a large number of hard currency imports. If infrastructure grows and increases exports together with hard currency earnings, a country can borrow in dollars. Then, under such condition, the country has to earn dollars in order to make the interest payments. But import substitution requires borrowing in dollars for the purpose of economic development of the domestic production that will not necessarily expand exports. By the end of the seventies the countries of Latin America faced the problem: Where to go next? And the next logical step was to export the goods which had been already produced efficiently. By the middle of the eighties Brazil became the largest exporter of shoes and coffee, among ten major exports to America, six were manufactured projects. Nevertheless, the expansion of manufactured goods made Brazilian economy vulnerable to retaliatory tariffs. Moreover, in the 1980s Brazil as well as other underdeveloped countries of Latin America did not manage to pursue the next layer of import substitution ( in particular, microchips, computers, capital equipment), although they attempted to create open markets for their manufactured consumer goods. Unlike the nations of Latin America, the majority of East Asian nations rejected the policy of import substitution industrialization. Due to this, as many economists think, East Asia had its superior performance in the seventies and the eighties of the twentieth century. Generally speaking, the Asian growth had started before World War II in Japan. The process of Asian growth included three groups of countries whose economic â€Å"miracle† began at different times: 1) Japan (after the Second World War); 2) The â€Å"four tigers†: Taiwan, South Korea, Hong Kong, Singapore (the sixties of the twentieth century); 3) Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, China (from the 1970s to the 1980s) In fact, by rejecting import substitution industrialization Asian nations managed to avoid some negative results of this policy. First, their economies were not dragged by inefficient industries. Second, East Asia did not have to implement policies benefiting industrial workers at the expense of those working on the farms. This was crucial for Asian countries because farmers made up the majority of their population. In addition, in order to diminish the cost of industrialization, the cost of food needed to be kept artificially low. And also, East Asia attempted to prevent the appearance of rent seeking behaviours, which resulted from the usage of the licensing schemes for import substitution strategy and which usually increased inefficiency of economics. High tariffs on manufactured goods, which were imposed by many countries in order to create their manufacturing bases, forced multinational companies to assemble or produce them locally. For example, manufacturers of motor industry exported vehicles for local assembly. Their vehicles were delivered ‘completely knocked down’ and the local assembly resulted in poorer quality and higher expenditures in comparison with those imported already built up. Moreover, the local assembly of identical products only duplicated resources and reduced economies of scale, which became increasingly inefficient for manufacturers. On the whole, at the beginning of 1980s the policy of import substitution industrialization began to fail both in Latin America and in those Asian countries where the policy was adopted. Generally, it happened because the governments involved in the policy started to overspend reserves in order to keep the stability of currency. The governments in Latin America defaulted on their debts and had to turn to the help of the International Monetary Fund. Another process which contributed to the failure of import substitution was globalization. However, some economists think that the collapse of the policy of import substitution industrialization â€Å"should not necessarily be taken as an endorsement of globalization. † (Wikipedia, 2005) Such point of view was supported by the fact that some countries of East Asia also used high tariff barriers while rejecting the rest of the strategy of import substitution. This mixed policy was focused on investment and subsidies on the industries which would produce goods for export. As a result, these Asian countries managed to create competitive industries. However, irrespective of all their achievements, the policies described above also proved to be inefficient and later led to many problems during Asian financial crisis. The closing period of import substitution industrialization was in 1989 when the Washington Consensus as a set of policies designed to promote economic growth in the countries of Latin America was presented by John Williamson. The Washington Consensus included reforms which continued the policy of import substitution industrialization offering a modernized version of its tenets. In particular, the Washington Consensus proposed the following: 1) the discipline of fiscal policy; 2) tax reform. It flattened tax curve: the tax rates on high tax brackets were lowered and the tax rates on the low tax brackets were raised. Also it suggested lowering the marginal tax rate; 3) Competitive exchange rates; 4) Trade liberalization by means of low and uniform tariffs which would replace quantitative restrictions; 5) Reduced limitation for foreign direct investment; 6) Privatization of state enterprises; 7) Deregulation, which implies â€Å"abolition of regulations that impede entry or restrict competition, except for those justified on safety, environmental and consumer protection grounds, and prudential oversight of financial institutions† (Wikipedia, 2005) 8) Property rights must be legally secured; 9) Public spending should be redirected toward the investment of health, education, and infrastructure; 10) â€Å"Interest rates that are market determined and positive (but moderate) in real terms. † (Wikipedia, 2005) In the nineties the Washington consensus was being disputed. The critics of the reforms argued that they would lead vulnerable countries to crisis instead of helping to overcome it. Naomi Klein and Noam Chomsky claimed that the neoliberal policies of the Washington consensus would lead to the exploitation of labor market of an underdeveloped economy by a more developed one. (Wikipedia, 2005) Privatization of state industries, deregulation, and tax reform were seen by the opponents as the reforms which would ensure the development of the layer of local monied elite who would pursue local interests and try to maintain local status quo. Jorge Taiana, the Deputy Foreign Minister of Argentina, also disapproved the Washington consensus saying that such policies never had a real consensus and nowadays â€Å"a good number of governments of the hemisphere are reviewing the assumptions with which they applied those policies in the 1990s,† adding that governments are working on a development model which would ensure productive employment and guarantee the generation of real wealth. (Wikipedia, 2005) Another economist Duncan Kennedy in the article for The Boston Review stated that the Washington Consensus completely opposed the initial tenets of import substitution industrialization and more favoured American political interests: â€Å"In the form promoted by the United States, ISI was as hostile to free-market economics as to Communism. The overarching idea of the Washington Consensus was to wipe out every aspect of ISI: the Washington Consensus is both that free markets are good and that ISI [Import substitution industrialization] was bad. Developing countries were to develop through integration into the world commodity and capital markets, with policies of deregulated private enterprise, foreign investment, and open economic borders. † (Kennedy D. 2003) All in all, taking into consideration the mistakes of the previous experience and the criticism of the economists, the developmental policy of import substitution industrialization has never been returned since the time of the Washington Consensus. Thus, in the paper import substitution industrialization as a process and as a policy was investigated. It was found out that import substitution pursues three main goals: utilization of underused capacities, reducing unemployment and infant industries protection. The implementation of the policy of import substitution industrialization is based on three tenets: particular monetary and industrial policies, and protective trade barriers. However, it turned out that success and efficiency of import substitution industrialization was doubted by the proponents of absolute free market. Potential risks of import substitution were also visible while careful theoretical analysis and pointed out by economists. The underdeveloped countries of Latin America and East Asia implemented the policy of import substitution industrialization. It occurred that the potential risks and the negative aspects found out by the proponents of absolute free market constituted the drawbacks of the policy and finally became the chief factors of its failure. However, the major part of East Asian countries rejected the policy and experienced economic growth. The example of Brazil demonstrated that the policy of import substitution industrialization can stimulate economic growth for some period of time, but its drawbacks (first of all high expenditures and inefficiencies) pose real obstacles for continuous and strong economic development. 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Utilitarianism and Deontology

Questions: A retired nurse applied for a pension from Centrelink, and was informed that she would receive a small pension of $8 per fortnight, and a pension card. She then received a letter saying that her pension would not be paid because she had assets of over $18 million, and an annual income of over $770,000. It took this lady several attempts to get centrelink to examine her case. Finally, the cause of the mistake was found to be a human error when the ladys investment details were coded into the computer. When the cause of the mistake was discovered, she was informed that they couldnt remove it from the computer. Centrelink claimed that this was an isolated incident. However, at the same time, another man was discussing with centrelink their claim that he had an income of $6 million, which was not the case. 1. Doing Ethics technique. 2. Ethical theory question. a. Utilitarianism b. deontology Answers: (1). A retired woman applied for her pension from the Centrelink but couldnt receive her pension. It was reported that she had more than $18 million with an annual income of $770,000. Finally, the case got solved through the use of coding in the computer and was discovered it as human error. But, even after the mistake discovered it was informed that they could not remove the mistake from the computer. The Retired nurse applied for the pension from the Centrelink. It was the fault of the Centrelink for indulging wrong information in their data. It was showed the slow process of Centrelink as it took long time to examine her case. The reason they gave was human error which shows their ineffectiveness in indulging the right data. Moreover, when they got knowledge about the mistake they could not rectify it. Further they claimed it as exceptional case but, another man claimed of indulging wrong data at the same time of the previous case. The ethical issues are issues which are subjected to choose between the ethical and unethical concern related to an individual and organization. The case study relates with some ethical issues in operations with the Information Technology. The issues in this case study are the issues of the data collection, storage and access along with the speed of the customers. There are many issues that need to consider in terms of collection, storage and the access of the data in the electronic form. On the other hand the speed of the computer arise the ethical problem. The implications of ethical issues in the business environment are huge. Lack of Ethics in Business environment can lead to many complications. It not only affects the reputation to its stakeholders as the Centrelink does in the case study but also affects the employee relations, company credibility and the employee performance. It also makes a high chance for legal issues. Ethical issues can be eliminated through the adoption of some of proper measures. A written code of Conduct need to provide which would implement the type of conduct and the behaviors that company needs to expect from employees and the managers. Secondly the ethical issues can demolish through showing the employee appreciation. The organization need to indulge appreciation in terms of rewards for the encouragement of loyalty. The organization also need o involve into hiring the values. At the time of hiring they need to be conscious about selecting the employees who has high ethical values. The above case studies shows that Centrelink needs to adopt the ethical measures. The above discussion made much important elimination of unethical behaviors through proper measures. Now among this Centrelink need to adopt the Code of Conduct. The main issues related with it show the emergence of the adoption of Code of Conduct into it. They also need to hire employees according to the selection process which would provide candidates for the company only which has ethical values. (2). a. Utilitarianism Utilitarianism is one of the best as well as most influential moral theories. It helps to differentiate the incidents related to ethical and unethical according to the effects. It consists to involve a simple theory for its one evaluative principle. The complex theory of Utilitarianism consists of three basic things. They are What is good? Jeremy Bentham answered the question through the adoption of the hedonism. It claimed that the only thing which is good is the role of producing the pleasure or the happiness. In this regard the identification as what the utilitarians is going to involve the good or the valuable in itself. Whose well-being Utilitarianism rising can be use for the purpose of decision-making. While in application it needs to give a view on the interest attached with each groups and persons. Everyone effected The Utilitarianism moral theory involves the requirement of the moral judgements which need to based on equal considerations of the interest. b. Deontology Deontology involves to judge the choice in terms of morality through its different state of affairs and as well as those choices which bring about. It is a simple theory which consists of duties dealing with the ethical theories. IT denies the fact of good and the values rather it considers the values on the right or the duty. There are many mathematical theses are associated with the deontologist. Deontology theories can be applied in much broader concept. It can be applied to the act of right and wrong. It should include certain category for example the incident of lying, killing or rather injustice and gratitude. One needs to adopt the general duty for the avoidance of such kind.